Corporate Governance and Internal Audits Role Essay

Corporate Governance and Internal Audits Role - Essay Example whether internal or external,and have led to evolution of a new systemic structure of the audit function.In the foregoing paragraphs we examine these aspects in some details.To begin with we look at some of the corporate governance policy developments and follow them up with contributions they make towards a more robust audit function. The Financial Services Authority has evolved a refurbished code on corporate governance replacing the1998 intending that the new Code will apply for reporting years beginning on or after 1 November 2003. This Code supersedes the earlier Combined Code issued by the Hampel Committee on Corporate Governance in June 1998.The highlight feature of the new code is the leveraging on the work of Derek Higgs on the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors and a review of the structure and functions of audit committees by a group led by Sir Robert Smith. The Code as it had evolved permitted no room for further consultations and was considered final and applicable in the stated form. The Code essentially evolved around main and supporting principles and provisions. The UK company Listing Rules requires corporates to make a disclosure statement in two parts in reference to the prescriptions of the Code. In the first free format part of the disclosure statement, the company reports as to how it applies the corporate governance principles stated within the Code. This report covers the main as well as the supporting principles. This first part reporting has been left free of any particular format with the specific intention of letting the corporates have a free hand in expressing their corporate governance policies and compliance with the Code. The second part, however, is structured and the concerned corporate has to report categorically if it complies with the provisions of the Code or not. In case it does not comply then structured explanation for the same has to be furnished. The Code specifies that smaller companies outside FTSE350 may find some of the Code provisions not entirely relevant to their circumstances. Similarly the investment companies have been excepted as they tend to have a distinct board structure. Lastly the Code carries this laudable flexibility further in not assessing mechanistically corporate deviations from the Code and advises shareholders to assess the characteristics, size and risk profile of the corporates before concluding on inadequacy of corporate disclosures. The flexibility of the Code itself reflects a desire of the regulator to

To explore the ways aspects of power are shown in the poem Essay Example for Free

To explore the ways aspects of power are shown in the poem Essay This poem is a dramatic monologue about a woman whose lover is cheating on her with his mistress ‘Pauline’. The woman who is speaking talks about her feelings of hatred and betrayal, so she decides to show her lover how much she is hurt by poisoning his mistress and making him watch her die slowly. Robert Browning’s poem was set in the ancient regime when women were thought of as incapable and a lower class because of their gender. She feels that she deserves power and therefore wants control of everything she does this is portrayed by the language that he uses. The language in the laboratory is very effective. Robert Browning uses techniques such as alliteration to emphasise different moods in the poem such as ‘moisten, mash up thy powder’; the alliteration in this case is effective because it sounds angry and gives the poem a more venomous feel. This relates to the poem because it reminds us that a poison is being made. The structure of the laboratory reminds the reader of a list. This is also evident in some of the language. The line ‘A signet, a fan-mount, a filigree basket’ portrays that she has thought things and shows her determination to kill. It is also very logical which make the reader question her sanity. I believe that Robert Browning structured the poem like this to make sure that we don’t feel sympathy for her as she is shown as a cold killer. Robert Browning uses a technique called enjambment in the lines ‘with her head/ and her breast and her arms and her hands should drop dead. ’ This technique is an effective form of structure because it forces the reader to read it quickly which in effect speeds up the pace of the poem. Robert browning used this technique to make the poem more dramatic and also enables the reader to get to the end of the poem when Pauline will be killed. The poet uses repetition throughout the poem to create the image of insanity and paranoia. ‘While they laugh-laugh at me’ is used to make the reader believe that she is insane from the thought of her lover cheating on her. The word ‘laugh’ is effective because it indicates to the reader that she is beyond feeling heartache and her rage has blinded her into paranoia. The punctuation has a wide job role in the Laboratory. It is used for pace as the commas are slowing the pace down in contrast to the language and poetic techniques which are speeding it up. The role of the punctuation is particularly illustrated in the lines ‘Quickis it finished? The colours too grim! / Why not soft like the phials, enticing and dim? ’. This quote shows that the language picked was cleverly thought out as it makes the reader want to read faster, and the punctuation slows the reader again and slows the pace to make it more dramatic and tense. Throughout the poem the narrator talks about how she want to kill Pauline and how she will feel when she does it, but in this quote near the end of the poem it says: ‘Let it brighten her drink, let her turn it and stir, /And try it and taste, ere she fix and prefer! ’ this suggests that Pauline would not realise that the poison is in her glass and would taste it and stir the drink more to make it taste better and subsequently mix the poison in her glass therefore leading to her own death. In conclusion, I believe that Robert Browning uses all these techniques to engage the reader and make them feel the pain of the narrator. Through this poem I have learnt that power can go to peoples head if they use it wrongly. Throughout the essay I have been writing about Robert Browning’s unique way of putting the reader into the writing. He also uses techniques to put emotion and life into the poem. Life in the 1800s was all about power and money; the more money you had the more power and influence you had. It was hard for women to be noticed as an equal because in those times women were known as the lesser species so had no power and were property to their father until marriage when they would be transferred to the husband. Women had no say in social matters or had any influence in the community. I believe Robert Browning was trying to say that women still have emotions and are equally strong physically and mentally which is shown in the well planned out murder in the poem.

Life Changing Ideas in Harper Lees To Kill a Mockingbird :: essays research papers

Would you read a book that could change the way people lived their lives, but was against what people thought? How would you feel if you were the one writing the book? Would you go against the grain just to get your point across? Well Harper Lee did. She wrote To Kill A Mockingbird, to get a point across and in doing so she changed the way people think about everyday life. Nelle Harper Lee studied law for a short time, and then in 1961 the book To Kill A Mockingbird was published. She grew up in the small town of Monroeville, Alabama. Although she never said all her life experiences were incorporated into the book. By doing so she based her opinion through the thoughts and words of a young girl in the novel, known as Scout. Scout also grows up in a small town in the book, called Maycomb. In these small towns during the time in which the book was written, the white people of the community were put above all others. The blacks of the time were looked down upon, and considered the lowest of them all. In Maycomb this was no exception such is the case when the town, ?would go along with them on the assumption-the evil assumption-that all Negroes lie, that all Negroes are basically immoral beings, that all Negro men are not to be trusted (217) Also in such small towns everybody knows everyone, and because of such tight quarters all others a re branded as outsiders, and are distant from the community, which leads people to ask, ?If there's just one kind of folks, why can't they get along with each other? If they're all alike, why do they go out of their way to despise each other(240) Being involved or talking with these ?outsiders? was dishonorable. By writing the book Harper Lee did just that and went against what society is saying. In the book she speaks of being the outsider, rape, prejudice, and violence, even through talk about these things is shameful, she wanted to get her point across. She wanted people to know that ?it's a sin to kill a mockingbird`Mockingbirds don't do one thing but make music for us to enjoy.

Oedipus Rex Essay

‘Oedipus the King,’ also known as ‘Oedipus Rex’ is one of the three Greek plays about Thebes written by Sophocles. In fact the plays form a trilogy (Oedipus Rex, Oedipus Colonus and Antigone) with the same characters. The plays are sometimes referred to as the ‘Oedipus Plays’ since Oedipus is the main character. Sophocles’ genius lies in the crafting of these plays, and their characters, almost bringing them to life. Throughout the course of ‘Oedipus Rex’ he expresses the power of fate and predestination that leads the characters astray. In fact, it was the stubborn belief in superstitions and prophecies that Sophocles highlights. Both the heroes, Oedipus and Creon are popular tragic heroes of Greek mythology. Oedipus is bright and has profound intellect, but at the same time is quick to make rash decisions without much thought. Creon though is depicted as a man of reason, much more subtle, unlike the brash Oedipus. The play begins with Oedipus ruling Thebes with a firm hand. The people believe him to be their savior because Oedipus is the one who saves them from the curse of the Sphinx, a half female half lion monster, by solving her riddle. King Lauis who ruled before Oedipus had left Thebes for a while under the kingship of Creon. But King Lauis is killed. Meanwhile Creon offers his sister’s hand in marriage to anyone who could rid the city of the Sphinx by solving her riddle. It is Oedipus who is able to solve it, marries Jocosta (Creon’s sister), and gains rule of part of Thebes. From the beginning Oedipus is aware of that there is some curse on him. He learns from an oracle that he is destined to kill his father and mate with his own mother. But it is his over-bearing belief in this curse that eventually results in his fall. At the beginning of the play Oedipus is shown to have great strength of character and will, and is a man of understanding. People have a high regard for him and fear him the same. But the one weakness that lied in Oedipus was his impulsiveness. Throughout the play are numerous instances where Oedipus makes rash decisions, and is quick to jump to conclusions without much thought. His vanity leads him to kill Lauis over a mere brawl. Later when the blind prophet Tiresias warns him not to investigate the murder of Lauis, Oedipus is incensed and argues that Tiresias himself is the murderer. When the prophet reveals the truth, Oedipus is enraged, accusing the old man of corruption. He is bent on believing that Creon wants to seize power until he realizes that Creon himself chooses not to rule even thought he has the right to a third of Thebes. When Jocasta kills herself, Oedipus gouges his eyes with her broaches blinding himself in despair. And when he does learn the truth, he demands his own exile out of shame and disgust. Sophocles portrays Oedipus as a man of honor and dignity, a matter of prime importance to ancient Greeks. He was also a man of great intellect – another feature admired by them. The riddle of the Sphinx was baffling to say the least, but it was only Oedipus who could solve it. What is the creature that walks on four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and three in the evening? † To this Oedipus replies, â€Å"Man† (who crawls on all fours as a baby, walks upright later, and needs a walking stick in old age)[1]. Oedipus, in fact was a typical hero in every sense of the word. He was short-tempered, proud, and stubborn, with unflinching dedication and loyalty. He had a strong conscience, an intelligent mind and passion to do good for his people and his city. But worst of all was his inability to see clearly. Sophocles describes this by using a theme of ‘sight and blindness’ in the play often. Oedipus can see, but remains blind to reality. In contrast, the old prophet can see clearly even though he is blind. Such themes were often a part of Greek mythology. But the theme of blindness has special importance in Oedipus Rex – at times literal, at times metaphorical. Later when Oedipus learns that Jocasta has killed herself, and when he does learn that he fulfilled the prophecy, he blinds himself out of guilt, and anger at not being able to see or think clearly. Oedipus is over-bearing in many ways, and it is his over-bearing sense of self that misleads him so easily. After blinding himself he leaves to spend the rest of his life in exile, with the aid of his daughter Antigone. Creon, Jocosta’s brother, and Oedipus’ relative and friend stands in sharp contrast to Oedipus. In Oedipus Rex Creon plays the role of a calm and controlled man with a mind that reasons. Creon is a close friend of Oedipus, but that too does not keep the headstrong Oedipus from suspecting that Creon wanted to rule Thebes. Creon though claims that he is not interested in ruling Thebes, and that Oedipus is only a king in name, since he has the right to as much of Thebes as Oedious himself. He represents a semblance of diplomacy and stability. In fact, these were the very things lacking in Oedipus. Creon also shows traits of being much more reasonable. An example is when Creon brings news from the oracle and wishes to tell it to Oedipus is person. Oedipus though is insistent that it be told in public, not keeping anything from anyone. One can see various instances where the two heroes are opposing in their approaches, and manner of dealing with situations. While Oedipus can be called childish and haughty, Creon was much more clear-headed and foresighted. But there were some things that the two heroes shared in common. Both had won the hearts of the people, were respected, and loved the city of Thebes. They were also very keen followers of the Greek gods. Since most Greek mythology was built around gods and goddesses, they played a crucial role ion determining the course of the story. In fact the theme of gods and of predestination plays a key role in Oedipus Rex. Oedipus is always wary of his curse told to him by an oracle. He seeks help from Apollo to determine the cause of the plague. Creon too follows the will of the gods. When Oedipus demands to be exiled, Creon waits for approval from the gods before taking any action. It is worth mentioning here that if Oedious Rex and Antigone are compared, one can see that both the kings accuse the old prophet Tiresias of corruption when he tells them that the gods are against them. But there is also a clear difference that follows. While Creon tries to change, and amend his wrongdoings, Oedipus remains ‘blind’ and refuses to acknowledge his mistakes. Eventually, Oedipus is left wandering blind and lonely, while he leaves his daughters in Creon’s care.

Nuclear Arms Race

UNIT 9 ARMS RACE AND THE NUCLEAR THREAT Structure Objectives Introduction Background to the Nuclear Arms Race 9. 2. 1 9. 2. 2 9. 2. 3 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race The Manhatten Project Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period The Nuclear Arms Race : How it is different from all the Previous Arms Races in History 9. 3. 1 9. 3. 2. 9. 3. 3. The Trinity Test Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings ‘New York Times' and the Trinity Test Different Phases of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Post-War Period 9. 4. 1 9. 4. 2 9. 4. 3 9. 4. 4 9. 4. 5 9. 4. 6 9. 4. 7 9. 4. 8 Fear of the Soviets and Communism 945 to 1953 : Period of US Monopoly 1957 to 1968 : Period of ‘Missile Crisis' and the ICBM Race 1968 to late 1970s : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race 1981 : Reagan's Strategic Modernization Plan 1983 : Militarization of Space-Reagan's Star War Programme 1984-1991 : Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the last days of collapsing Soviet Union. 1991 to 1997 : Nuclea r Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet Union Nuclear Arms Race in the Third World and South Asia 9. 5. 1 9. 5. 2 95. 3 9. 5. 4 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms Race in South Asia India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race Domino Theory' in South Asia General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 9. 0 OBJECTIVES This unit deals with Arms Race and the Nuclear Threat in the present day world. After studying this unit, you will be in a position to: understand the background to the nuclear arms race; explain how the nuclear arms race is different from all the previous arms races; discuss the different phases of the nuclear arms race in the post-war period; and emarnine the nuclear arms race in the Third World and especially in South Asia. . 1 INTRODUCTION This unit on ‘Arms Race and Nuclear Threat' is part of Block 3 which deals with what is called the ‘Cold War Per iod'; i. e. , after the Second World War and the emergence of what is termed as Superpower Dominance. In Unit &'World War 11: Causes and Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers)' you have read about how the USA and the USSR emerged as Superpowers in international politics after the end of the Second World War.In Unit 7 : ‘Cold War: Meaning, Patterns and Dimensions', you have learnt how the collapse of Germany and its allies in 1945 led to the emergence of what has been termed as ‘Cold War' between the-two main powers of the post-1945 international order * i. e. USA and USSR. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) which was dealt with in Unit 8 of this block was a consequence of the cold war power bloc politics. One thing common to the post-1945 international order as well as the pre-1945 world was the arms race. When studying about World War I and 11, you would have surely read about the arms race which was both quantitative and qualitative in character.It would also have been n oticed that the arms race in its qualitative dimension in both the world wars was itself one of the greatest causes of the two wars. From the invention of dynamite by Sir Alfred Nobel of the Novel Industries in the First World War period, to the invention of rockets by Germany in the Second World War, it is the search for the ultimate weapon which could win all wars that constituted the greatest push for the arms race. In this madness scientists, nations, people, soldiers, politicians all fell prey and ended up only killing greater and greater number of civilians.In the present unit, we will concentrate on the arms race in the post-1945 international order. As has been stated before, this quest for a qualitatively more destructive weapon was the greatest motivating factor in bringing the world a step closer to war, be it the First or the Second World War. The key difference in the arms race before 1945 (i. e. in the interwar period) and after 1945 was the nuclear dimension. Prior to 1945, all the arms races in human history never confronted what is now popularly known as the ‘Nuclear Threat'.After 1945, the arms race that humanity got engaged in became the greatest living threat to life itself as known on this planet. The difference lies in one single qualitative step in the arms race, and that step was the creation of the Atomic or Nuclear bomb in 1945. Thus, from 1945 the arms race we discuss in this Unit, remained no longer ‘conventional' but acquired a nuclear character and from then till today, man is engaged in an arms race that puts both parties who engage in it, under a perpetual ‘Nuclear Threat'. 9. B ACKGROUNDTOTHENUCLEARARMSRACE 9. 2. 1 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race The nuclear arms race between the superpowers began initially in the pre-second world war period between the Germans and the Allied Powers. It was in the context of this conflict prior to the Second World War that in 1938, at the Kaiser William Institut e in Germany, Otto Hann and Dr. Fritz Steersman first split the atom. Lise Meitner and Otto Hann later declared this successful splitting of the atom amounting to a nuclear fission.It was a matter of coincidence that at this juncture in history, the greatest minds working on the ‘atomic problem' were Jews and that too, German. Hitler's rapid anti-Semitism during the period sent most of these great minds in Germany rushing to the USA where they were welcomed. These fleeing scientists informed the American military who were closely monitoring events in Europe. There was widespread apprehension that Germany might be the first to produce the nuclear bomb as the knowledge of splitting the atom was already available to it.Albert Einstein too was one of the refugees and he knew fully the significance of this discovery, for it was he who first unlocked the secret power of the atom to the modern world. He warned the President of the United States about it. 9. 2. 2 The Manhatten Project T he Americans under President Roosevelt were fully aware of the international implications and so began the race to build the bomb first. Roosevelt commissioned what was the top secret ‘Man Hatten Project', the biggest scientific effort ever made costing 2 billion dollars under Maj. Gen.Leslie Groves to construct the atomic bomb in a record time. Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, Herbert York, Edward Teller, Hans Beth and a host of other scientific luminaries were involved in the production of the first three nuclear bombs. The interesting aspect of this bomb construction was that though the initial enemy was Germany, slowly the real enemy for whom the bomb was constructed turned out to be the Soviet Union. In fact, Gen. Leslie Groves stated that he had no illusions that Soviets were the real enemy. -This fact is critical to an understanding of the post 1945 world.Arms Race and Nuclear Threat 1 Cold War Period 9. 2. 3 Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period German y, the first nation with whom the US engaged in the N-Arms race surrendered in May 1945 and all its nuclear facilities were destroyed, thus ending the first phase of an incipient nuclear arms race. Despite this the arms race had to continue once the weapons had been built. A new enemy across the horizon was discovered Communist Soviet Union. The fear of communism was ideologically fueling the furious pace of the A-Bomb construction. In that sense the emerging U. S. ilitary-industrial complex was not wrong. Communist USSR was definitely the biggest power confronting USA and its western allies once Germany collapsed. The world was definitely getting divided into two camps, the capitalist and the socialist and Europe including Germany was its first victims. The Allies could not do anything about it. Something had to be found, a new ultimate weapon which could stop and possibly destroy the march of communism. That something designed initially for fascist Germany and used for experimenta tion in Japan was to be probably used later against the Socialist Soviet union.This was the underlying ideological war cry in the American establishment and the subtle reason for continuing the arms race into the post-Second World War world era. The discovery of the split atom gave confidence to the United States that it could fight the ‘cold war' or ‘iron-curtain' that Winston Churchill said had descended over Europe. It was an indication that the new war after 1945 would be fought against the USSR. Check Your Progress 1 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) C heck your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1)Examine the background to the nuclear arms race. 2) What are the rationale for the arms race in the post-war period? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ s 9. 3 THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE : HOW IT IS DIFFERENT FROM ALL PREVIOUS ARMS RACES IN HISTORY 9. 3. 1 The ‘Ikinity Test Of the three bombs constructed, the first was tested on July 16, 1945 at Alamagordo, New Mexico. It is known as the Trinity Test. The successful Trinity Test heralded the birth of the Nuclear-Bomb in human history and the dawn of the nuclear age.Neils Bohr, the famous Danish Physicist, prophetically observed the insetting arms race and its qualitative difference. In a letter to Resident Roosevelt on 3 July 1944 he mentioned that a weapon of unparalleled power was being created which would completely change all future conditions of warfare. Some scientists anticipating the arms race between the US and the USSR urged the American Government to share the nuclear secrets with Soviet Union and thus prevent an arms race. However, it is obvious that the scientists were too naive of the game of politics as well as the intensity of international politics.Such advice was never heard, and the race was continued in the hope of victory. To the military desperately looking for a way to deal with the Germans, the Japanese qnd finally the Soviets, the Trinity Test held out hope that they could win. 9. 3. 2 Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings Two more historical events, however, finally sealed the destiny of mankind. They were the dropping of the two remaining untested nuclear devices, i. e. , the 5 ton uranium bomb on Hiroshima on August 6 and on Nagasaki on August 8, 1945.Over 250,000 people died in both the cities and the ‘living corpses' who survived bled incessantly and were blackened with their skins hanging in shreds, their hair scorched to the roots. Most were totally naked, their clothes burnt from their bodies. George Bernard Shaw observed in ‘Man and Superman' about the art of killing that man, â€Å"out does nature herself †¦ when he goes out to slay, he carries a marvel of mechanism that lets loose at the touch of his finger all the hidden molecular energies and leaves the javelin, the arrow and blow pipe of his fathers far behind†. Hiroshima and Nagasaki exemplified that. . 3. 3 ‘New York Times' and the ‘Ikinity Test It would be easier to comprehend the qualitative significance of nuclear arms race if we take note of two observations made at the time of the Trinity Test. The ‘New York Times' reporter who witnessed the test observed â€Å"†¦ a light not of this world, the light of many suns in one. It was a surprise such as the world had never seen, a great green super can climbing in a fraction of a second to a height of more than 8,000 ft, rising even higher until it touched the clouds, lighting earth and sky all round with a dazzling {uminosity.Up it went, a great ball ,of fire about a mile in diameter, changing colours, as it kept shooting upward, from d eep purple to orange, expanding, growing bigger, rising as it was expanding, an elemental force freed from its bonds after being chained for billions of years. For a fleeting instant the colour was unearthly green, such as one only sees in the corona of the sun during a total eclipse. It was as though one had been privileged to witness the birth of the world to be present at the moment of creation when the Lord said: â€Å"Let There Be Light†.Robert Oppenheimer perhaps summarized in one line the destiny of modern man's predicament vis-a-vis his own creation, when he quoted the Gita to exclaim â€Å"I have become death, destroyer of worlds†. The roar created by the explosion at Alamagordo could be heard 50 miles afar and the pillar of fire that the New York Times reporter talked about rose 6 miles into the sky. These observations of the Trinity Test and the dropping of the bomb at Hiroshima and Nagasaki sum up why the arms race mankind got caught in after 1945 is totall y different in its complexion from all the previous arms races in human history.The sad part, however, for any idealist scholar of international relations is that despite these evidences of destruction, the arms race continued with greater vigour and vengeance. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period Check Your Progress 2 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit. 1) What is the Trinity Test? 9. 4 DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IN THE POST-WAR PERIOD 9. 4. 1 Fear of the Soviets and CommunismIt was the Trinity Test on July 16, 1945 that truly sparked off the nuclear arms race between the US and the Soviet Union. Despite the horror of Hiroshima and Nagasaki the race never stopped. ‘The second fact that fuelled the nuclear arms race was the Soviet Communist enemy. This was, in fact, testified to by Gen. Leslie Groves who said he had no illusions as to whom the bomb was really bein g built for, i. e. , the Soviets. The ideological, political and military threat to capitalism by rising communism had to be dealt with. The discovery of the nuclear bomb was truly the biggest boost to the arms race.United Kingdom followed US-Soviet acquisition of the bomb in 1952, France in 1960 and China in 1964. The nuclear arms race passed through the following phases, they cannot be clearly distinguished from each other. 9. 4. 2 1945 to 1953: Period of US Monopoly During this period, the United States first enjoyed a total monopoly until 1953 and then, nuclear superiority. In this phase, the US territory was regarded as a sanctuary because the Soviets did not have any reciprocal delivery capability to reach the American targets from USSR.The United States, on the other hand, could attack the Soviet targets from American bases in Western Europe. 9. 4. 3 1957 to 1968 : Period of ‘Missile Crisis' and the ICBM Race T he monopoly enjoyed the US during the first phase was broke n when the Soviets successfully tested the ICBM in 1957 creating what has been called the ‘Missile Crisis' in America. The advent of ICBMs shifted the focus of the nuclear arms race to strategic weapons; i. e. Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), Sea Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) and strategic or inter-continental bombers which provided the strategic tripod.In 1967, USSR tested what is called a Fractional Orbital Bombardment System. This accelerated the qualitative dimension of the nuclear arms race further into space. 9. 4. 4 1968 to Late 1970's : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race T he third phase in the nuclear arms race began when the American delivery technology took a gigantic leap by introducitfg what is called the Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) capability in their ICBMs in 1968.This meant that now one single l CBM could carry many small nuclear warhead fitted missiles which on reentering Soviet airspace would go in different directio ns hitting many targets. MIRV marked a tremendous exponential upgradation of the arms race. This sent shivers down the Soviets who, however, mastered the technology by 1974. During this phase, the Soviets deployed two other weapon systems. First, the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) system in 1968 and second, the first Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile and warhead, thus ensuring that the arms race went on.Check Your Progress 3 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) Briefly examine the period of US Monopoly in the Arms Race. . 2) Describe the efforts made by the erstwhile Soviet Union to break the US Monopoly in armaments. 9. 4. 5 1981 : Regan's Strategic Modernization Plan The next major technological tussle took place between the two Superpowers over the MX-Missile. On October 2, 1981 President Regan announced a strategic modernization plan at an estimated cost of $ 160 billion.The weapons systems planned included : (i) Missile Experimental or MX missle : 100 of these were to be built; (ii) B-IB Bombers : 100 of them to be built; (iii) STEALTH Bombers that are radar resistant by 1990s; (iv) TRIDENT-I1 D-5 missiles-one per year between 1983 and 1987; (v) Command Control and Intelligence system (C,I) to be modernized; (vi) NAVSTAR Satellite global positioning system; (vii) Encapsulated dormant missiles; (viii) TERCOM for precision guided cruise missile; an advanced communication system; (ix) Global Positioning System (GPS) for guidance of the ICBMs during the boost phase; (x) Route encrypted comunications to missiles or launchers; (xi) slackwire buoys radio reception by submarines; (xii) Fuel-Cell propulsion. 9. 4. 6 1983: Militarization of Space-Reagan's Star Wars ProgrammeThe militarization of space began from 1958 and since then, over 2219 satellites-military and civilian have been launched by t'he superpowers and other nations, and 75% of the satellites launched have been f or surveillance and military use, thus clearly violating the Space Treaty of 1967. On March 23, 1983 President Reagan announced the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) popularly called ‘Star Wars' Programme costing 1 trillion dollars to raise the militarization of space to a qunlitatively rlcr; high. The aim being to build both a ground based and space based Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) to protect US territory against Soviet strategic missile attacks.Theoretically, the SDI programme, was supposed to be an alternative to the Mutual Assured Destruction or MAD dogma as it would provide Mutual Assured Survival. It was thought the render nuclear weapons obsolete be relying on three new types of nonnuclear weapon systems. These were : Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period i) Kinetic Energy Weapons ii) Directed Energy Weapons and iii) Microwave Energy Weapons All these weapons were based on various types of chemicals, electromaphetic forces. and x-rays and lasers. The SDI pr ogramme did not take off for many reasons. They being: a) It was too expensive. b) It was not a sure technological venture, in the sense that it was far too complicated and thus not feasible. C) T he Soviets could easily render SDI ineffective by building a counter SDI. ) Reagan never consulted his European NATO allies and infact, surprised them by his announcement thus creating opposition to the programme in Europe. e) Reagan by signing the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) completely ended the political rationale of the SDI programme. f) In the USA itself, in the Congress and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, both the Republicans and the Democrats were of the opinion that they would not allow SDI to pass at any cost and thus, damage the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty of 1972. Thus, they rejected SDI as otherwise it would have meant that the ABM Treaty alongwith SALT I and I1 would be nullified.Same would be the fate of START negotiations thus destroying the whole edifice of arms control and the start of an unbridled nuclear arms race. Added to this, many important scientists in USA, important people like James Schlesinger, former Secretary of Defense Mc-George Bundy, cold warriors likc George F. Kennan and Robert McNamara, former Secretary of Defence Harold Brown and a host of other people opposed the very fundamental logic of SDI that it would make the world safe of USA by removing the stability provided by the MAD capability of both the superpowers. Later on, the sweeping changes initiated by Michael Gorbachev within the USSR vide ‘Glassnost' and ‘Perestroika' and allowing democracy in Eastern Europe ended the whole logic of SDI. Check Your Progress 4 Note : i)Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) What were the main cornponcnts of US President Ronald Reagan's Strategic Modernisation Plan? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2 ) What were the reasons for the criticism of Regan's S DI P r o g r a ~ r i ; ~ , ~ ! 9. 4. 7 1984-1991: Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the Last Days of Collapsing Soviet UnionBy January 1985, due to the damage already done by SDI of Ronald Reagan, massive rearmament programmes were on the both the sides, and the future direction of the arms race was dependent upon the two superpowers. The arms race was on at three levels of nuclear weaponary, i. e. ,-space weapons, intercontinental weapons, and intermediate nuclear weapons. The US position on militarization of space through SDI really put the arms negotiation in difficult state. The Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko said, â€Å"If there were no advancement on the issues of outer space, it would be superfluous to discuss the possibility of reducing strategic armaments. † The US in 1984 had a massive programme for rearmament of many types of weapon systems.The rearmament programme of USA consisted of more Sea Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs); about 800 more nuclear warheads to be fitted on sea and air delivery systems; MX missile testing; Midgetsman Missiles; the eighth Trident submarine fitted with more accurate SLBMs and 100 B -lB bombs. On the Soviet side, in 1984-1985 the rearmament meant rearmament of all Soviet SS-17s SS-18s and SS-19s into the MIRV ed mode, a new TYPHOON class submarine and testing a new type of more accurate SLBM. There was a reported attempt to make 40% of Soviet ICBMs on the movable mode instead of the existing 25% and all 243 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBMs) were to be deployed. All in all, 1984-85 was a period of massive rearmament of all weapon systems.In 1985-86, the picture as regards arms race was the same. There was no restraint. The only hope that some kind of arms control was possible was generated by the November 1985 summit meeting at Geneva between President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev where both in a joint statement stated that, â€Å"The sides †¦. have agreed that a nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought. † They also agreed to hold summit level meetings in 1987 and 1988. These words were an indirect admission by USA that the SDI was not workable. In other words, it recognised as unfeasible that the MAD doctrine could be replaced and a limited nuclear war waged by militarizi ng space was recognised as unfeasible.Apart from this, there was little progress in the talks on arms reduction in Europe. As regards the nuclear arms race in 1986-87, the situation was still more or less the same except that there was a little movement towards arms control. The US put its first MX ICBM and B-1B bomber on operational position and on a 24 hour alert. Deployment of Pershing I1 missiles and SS-20s continued in Europe. However, certain positive developments took place which definitely halted the arms race in the long run. First, the 27th CPSU Congress in February 1986 decided on Perestroika (Restructuring of Economy), Glasnost ( Openness and Democratization) and reversal of military confi. ontation in Europe and opening up of Eastern Europe.Second, the Raykiajavik summit on 11 and 12 October 1986 declared that a nuclear war could never be won and should never be fougkt. Third, within the USA a tattered Reagan's economy and the Senate's opposition to SDI hit US arms race plans. Fourth, there were differences between USA and its NATO Allies who were never consulted on SDI. Thus, though the arms race went on in 1986-87 it was definitely going to end soon. As regards 1987-88, on December 8, 1987 the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) was signed for the elimination of all intermediate and short range missiles. The agreement required the USA and USSR remove 2695 intermediate range GLBMs with a range of 1 000 to 5500 kms. It also envisaged the removal of GLBMs short range i. e. , 5 00 to 1000 kms.USSR agreed to remove 1836 missiles while USA removed 867 missiles. The INF Treaty saved the ABM Treaty from being neutralised by SDI, because with this treaty the rationale for SDI became even weaker and Reagan found it very difficult to push the matter in the Congress as well as with US public. In this sense, it saved the world from another dangerous dimension of arms race i. e. , the space opening UP. 1988-89 was another significant year as it too had something to show in terms of peace. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period 1988-83 can be characterised as the year of settlement of disputes in Afghanistan, Namibia, Iran-Iraq War, Israel-PLO and South Africa.It was also the year Gorbachev announced at the UN, unilateral reduction of Soviet troops and armaments in Europe amounting to 40% reduction of Soviet tank divisions and 50% of Soviet tanks deployed in GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. This was a very significant political and military move as regards the continuation of conventional and nuclear arms race in Europe. 1989-90 can be characterized as the Year of Europe. By the end of 1989, almost all Soviet Allies in Eastern Europe and Central Europe except Rumania and Albania were free. In August 1989, the first non-communist government got elected in Poland. By November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall had crashed.Elections also took place in Hungary, GDR and Czechoslovakia. On 29 December 1989 Vaclav Havel took over as the President of Czechoslovakia. At the Malta summit in December 1989, President Gorbachev showed readiness to regulate further and move ahead on the START process. Gewge Bush, the US President, hesitated a bit though he committed US towards a Chemical Weapon Ban and the required agreement in the future. 1990 was a year full of events. While Europe and the two superpowers were moving towards peace the Gulf was in flames with the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq on August 2, 1990. Apart from this, in 1990, the WARSAW Pact was dissolved on 3rd March.On June 1, 1990, US and USSR signed a treaty on the destruction of and non-production of chemical weapons and on multilateral measures to ban chemical weapons. It was decided that by 31 December, 1992, all chemical weapons in the world would be destroyed and' only 5000 tons of agents would be kept. Then, the membership of the Missiles Technology Control Regime (MTCR) expanded. On November 20, 1990 there was the Treaty and a Joint Declaration of Conv entional Armed Forces (CFF) forever reducing the nuclear threat in Europe. Check Your Progress 5 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) What were the salient features of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev era? 9. 4. 1991 to 97 : Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet Union 1991-92 was a historic year in the sense that due to the collapse of USSR, the enemy that fueled the arms race for US militarists broke up into 14 new states. Yugoslavia also broke up and in one stroke the enemy in so far as the US was concerned was gone and so, the whole political ideologic'al basis of the nuclear arms race. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2nd August 1990 led to the launch of US and Allied coalition attack under UN auspices against Iraq on 17th January, 1991. It ended on 28th February, 1991 with the complete defeat of Iraq. Arms trade as a result showed a down-ward trend.In 1991 the total valu e of global arms trade touched $ 22, 114 million. This . was 20% less than in 1990. I In 1992-93 USA, the Russian Federation, France, and Britain all agreed to halt the nuclear arms race totally except vis-a-vis R & D. At the regional level, there was further concretization of Europe's complete demilitarization by the signing of the Helsinkl Document by all Eastern and West European countries. Added to this, there was the world summit on environment at Rio and UN Secretary General's declaration of the ‘Agenda for Peace'. The peripd between 1993 and 1997 saw two other significant events taking place i n~the nuclear arms race.First, in 1995 the NPT review Conference took place for an indefinite extension of the treaty and on 24th September 1996, the Comprehensive Test Ban Traty (CTBT) was up for signature. US and the other nuclear weapons states and 60 other non-nuclear states signed the CTBT. India did not sign either the NPT or CTBT. The government argued that it did so to kee p the nuclear weapons option open. This position taken by India brings us to the question of nuclear arms race in the Third World, dealt with in the following section. .; Check Your Progress 6 L Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer. ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit. I) Examine the nuclear arms race after the collapse of the USSR. 9. 5 NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IN THE THIRD WORLD AND SOUTH ASIA r rT he nuclear arms race that went on in the First World throughout the Cold War definitely had its impact on the Third World. The quest of the German Bomb fueled the American ‘Manhattan Project' initially, and as the Second World War came to a close it was the Soviet ideological and military power manifest in the occupation of Eastern Europe that really put Americans firmly on the track of nuclear bomb making. However, at that time the Allies needed the Soviet Communists to destroy fascist Germany, Italy and Japan. Stalin's intelligence ag encies were well aware of the secret American nuclear programme and at Postdam, his suspicions were confirmed when President Roosevelt informed Stalin of a secret weapon.This knowledge fueled the Soviet desire to build the bomb at a feverish pace to counter the threat form c aptalist west. The bombing on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, though not really necessary were also a veiled threat to Soviets of the American resolve. These events in a way led to the nuclear arms race. After 1949, when Communist China emerged under Mao, it is believed that the Chinese through Soviet help (prior to Sino-Soviet split) too got the nuclear capability and tested in 1964. China was considered a Third World state and one can see how the ideological and political nature of nations deeply affected their decision to develop a nuclear capability.Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period 9. 5. 1 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms Race in South Asia Thus, the acquisition of nuclear cap ability of China in 1964 signalled the beginning of a nuclear arms race in South Asia. The Indo-Pak conflict was not actually the factor responsible for India's quest for nuclear capability as many scholars claims, though it came in much later. The Kashmir conflict and partition and the three subsequent wars in 1948, 1965 and 1971 did fuel the conventional arms race. 9. 5. 2 India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race The nuclew arms race in South Asia however was not of India's making.It rather came after the massive defeat India suffered at Chinese hands in 1962, which hit our whole defense and foreign policy. This followed by the news of Chinese exploding the nuclear device in 1964 shook the Indian political and military establishment and they decided to develop India's nuclear capability. The decision was also influenced, perhaps, by the Chinese collusion with Pakistan in the 1950s prior to the 1962 war. It brought home to the Indian strategists the real possibility of Chinese and Pakistanis joining hands against India. After 1962, there was thus no looking back and the nuclear arms race reached South Asia. When India conducted the Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) in 1974, the Pakistanis too decided to go for a nuclear programme.The onset of the Second Cold War with the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan 1979 put Pakistan on the high priority zone of US in its fight against communism. It signalled deeper military cooperation and aid to Pakistan and some say, the beginning of some help even in fledgling Pakistan nuclear weapons programme. As of now, the South Asian region, is definitely a zone of nuclear competition with India consciously ‘keeping its option open' and not exercising its capability. This is expressed in its refusal to sign both the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty in the 1995 Review Conference ahd the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) on 24th September, 1996. . 5. 3 ‘Domino Theory' in South Asia The South Asian case amply demonstrates t he ‘Domino Theory' which fuels nuclear arms race or any arms race. First, it was the German threat to Europe which made the US go for the bomb. Then, the Soviet threat made US go in for the bomb again. The bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki led Soviets to acquiring the bomb. The common threat to world communism led to Soviets helping the new communist state of China in 1949 with nuclear technology which helped China to conduct a nuclear test in 1964. The Soviets, however, had refused to give nuclear weapon design to China, which became the cause of Sino-Soviet rift.The Indian defeat in 1962 and Pakistan's collusion with the Chines led the Indians to develop the nuclear capability by 1974. The Indian explosion coupled with successive defeats in wars with India led the Pakistanis onto the bomb. The cases of other third world countries acquiring the bomb in similar; e. g. the Iraqi and Iranian nuclear programmes. The South African case too is due to perceived survival threats. Th e other nuclear capable states are Argentina and Brazil-two major States in, Latin America. 9. 5. 4 General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia Overall one can say that the third world nuclear arms race is definitely a product of the nuclear arms race in the first world and the many conflicts within the Third World sustain it.The cold war military alliance system helped this process. Now, after the collapse of s oviet Union and the massive reduction prior to it and after it in Western nuclear arsenals, nuclear peace has been brought to the world in the sense that we aren't always ‘living on the edge' of a nuclear holocaust. However, the non-resolution of conflicts in the Third World, e. g. Indo-Pak conflicts, Arab-Israeli conflict is a definite reason for the continuance of nuclear arms race in the Third World. – — – Check Your Progress 7 Note : i) F t Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the e nd of the w it. ) What are the factor propelling the arms race in South Asia? 2 ) Briefly comment on India's stand on the nuclear proliferation issue. 9. 6 LET US SUM UP We can conclude this unit by recalling a few pertinent points. Thus: i) The discovery of the. power of the ‘atom' in both its creative and destructive senses was possibly the greatest event in 20th century history. The creation and blasting of the nuclear bomb by the US demonstrated its power with telling effect. ii) The ideological conflict between capitalist West and socialist East was the single biggest factor instigating the nuclear arm race until the collapse of one side i. e. , of the USSR in 1991. iii)However, despite the demise of Socialist Soviet Union nuclear weapons still remain the basis for military power and their quest continues by many third world countries e. g. India, Pakistan, South Africa, Israel, Iran, Iraq and North Korea. iv) The nuclear threat to humanity remains even today and there is very little hope of complete disarmament. The only possible way is probably to reduce the number of warheads and number of nations acquiring this technology for settling their disputes. KEY WORDS ABM-Anti-Ballistic Missile System : It is a weapon system designed to defend against a ballistic attack by intercepting and destroying ballistic missiles and their warheads in flight. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War PeriodBMD-Ballistic Missile Defense : Systems capable of intercepting and destroying nuclear weapons in flight for defense against a ballistic Missile attack. CFE T naty : The h a t y o n Conventional Armed Forces in Europe : Negotiated in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), a process which began in 1973 and was signed in 1990 by NATO and WTO countries and came into force on 9 November, 1992. NATO-North Atlantic h a t y Organisation : Created by the US and its allies in Western Europe after the Second World War to counter USSR. WTO-Warsaw %sty Org anisation: Created by Soviet Union in 1955 to counter NATO military alliance. Dissolved in 199 1.ICBM-Inter Continental Ballistic Missile: Ground launched Ballistic Missile capable fo delivering a warhead to a target at ranges in excess of 5500 km. INF-Intermediate Range Nuclear forces: are nuclear forces with a range oflfrom 1000 km. upto and including 5500 kms. MIRV-Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicles, carried by a nuclear ballistic missile, which can be directed to separate targets along separte trajectories (as distinct from MRVs). A missile can carry two or more RVs. MRV-Multiple Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicle, carried by a nuclear missile, directed to the same target as the missile's other RVs.MAD-Mutual Assured Destruction: Concept of reciprocal deterrence which rests on the ability of the nuclear weapon powers to inflict intolerable damage on one another after receiving a nuclear attack. Open Skies h a t y – A Treaty signed by 2 5 CSCE states in 1992, permitting flights by unarmed military or civilian surveillance aircraft over the territory of the signatory states, in the area from Vancouver to Vladivostock. SLBM–Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile: A ballistic Missile launched from a submarine, usually with a range in excess of 5500 kms. START I TREATY : Strategic Arms Reduction lkeaty : Between USA and USSR to reduce strategic nuclear weapons.Strategic Nuclear Weapons : ICBMs, SLBMs and bomber aircraft carrying nuclear weapons of inter-continental range of usually over 5500 kms. Doctriae of Deterrence : It theorically means that the most appropriate way to prevent your enemy employ atomic weapons against you is to put a counter threat by also possessing the atomic bomb. Doctrine of Massive Retaliation: Was a strategy of employing nuclear weapons and outlined by US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles after President Eisenhower took over from President Truman in 1954. The massive retaliation doct rine was founded on responding to any communist inspired aggression, however marginal the confrontation, by means of a massive nuclear strike against major centres in the Soviet Union and China.Doctrine of Limited War : Was propounded by Captain Basil Liddel Hart in the late 1940s. He argued in his book ‘the Revolution in Warfare' in 1946 that â€Å"When both sides possess atomic power ‘total warfare' makes nonsense†¦ Any unlimited war waged with atomic power would be worse than non-sense, it would be mutually suicidal†. He argued that war should, therefore, be a controlled affair and without barbarous excess. However, many US strategies criticized his concept of limited war as practically impossible. Doctrine of Flexible Response : Adapted by NATO in 1967 and based on a flexible and balanced range of appropriate responses, conventional and nuclear, to all levels of aggression or threats.These responses, subject to appropriate political control, are Arms Race and Nuclear Threat designed first to deter aggression and thus preserve peace; but, should aggression unhappily occur, to maintain the security of NATO area within the concept of forward defense. 9. 8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS Lawrence Freedman: The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy. P:M. S. Blackett: Atomic Weapons and East West Relations. Hedly Bull : The Control of the Arms Race. Morton Halperin : Limited War in the Nuclear Age. Freed Ikle : Can Nuclear Deterrence last out the country? Robert Jervis : Perceptions and Misperceptions i n International Politics. Herman Kahn : O n Escalation : Metaphors and Scenarios.Henry Kissinger : Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy. Thomas Shelling : Arms and Influence. — – – – – 9. 9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES Check Your Progress 1 1) See Section 9. 2 2) See Section 9. 2 and sub-section 9. 2. 3 Check Your Progress 2 1) S eeSection9. 3 Check Your Progress 3 1) See Section 9. 4 and sub-sections 9. 4. 1 to 9. 4 . 4 2) See Section 9. 4 and sub-section 9. 4. 3 Check Your Progress 4 1) See sub-sections 9. 4. 5 and 9. 4. 6 2) See sub-section 9. 4. 6 Check Your Progress 5 1) See sub-section 9. 4. 7 Check Your Progress 6 1) See sub-section 9. 4. 8 Check Your Progress 7 1) See Section 9. 5 2) See Section 9. 5 and sub-section 9. 5. 2 – –

Managing Risks in Oil and Gas Companies

Managing Risks in Oil and Gas Companies Introduction Oil and gas companies face a variety of risks in the process of their operations. Many occurrences that happen outside a company may have an effect on the firm and the financial decisions that it makes. Changes in interest rates, prices of oil, and exchange rates among others are likely to alter the financial decisions of a firm. It is therefore imperative for firms to ensure that no potential economic changes pose a threat to their business.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Managing Risks in Oil and Gas Companies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Taylor and Kathleen (2013, p. 80), corporate financial managers are charged with the responsibility of ensuring that any past, current, and future fluctuations will not affect the economic standing of the firm. McShane and Anil (2011, p. 641) affirm that companies use various risk management tools known as derivatives to manage risks. The tool used should caution the firm from negative impacts of various risks that may happen in its environment. According to Smistad and Igor (2012, p. 46), in western Canada, oil companies apply future derivatives to buy certain goods or services at a price that is agreed upon today. Chanmeka et al. (2012, p. 259) argue that some companies make use of options where a firm gains the right to sell or buy certain goods or services at a certain price in the future. McShane and Anil (2011, 641) confirm that risk information is crucial to investors and the entrepreneurs themselves. The oil and gas industry is likely to face various risks. For example, political risks, geological risks, price risks, supply and demand risks, and cost risks amongst others. This paper will discuss risk management in various gas and oil companies presenting a detailed literature review of risks in general followed by a detailed discussion of the in the oil and gas firms. Risks The subject of risks is quite pivotal w hen it comes to the running of various organisations. Companies need to be aware of the possible or rather potential risks that they are likely to encounter in a bid to develop mechanisms of mitigating them in real time once they occur to ensure continued operation rather than untimely closure of such firms due to their failure to take the necessary precautionary measures. Various risks are likely to affect different investments. Such risks include political risks, price fluctuations, and changes in supply and demand, natural calamities, geological risks, economic recessions, and government control risks amongst others. Entrepreneurship is a risky undertaking and every entrepreneur has to risk some of these factors and get into business.Advertising Looking for dissertation on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Taylor and Kathleen (2013, p. 83), in the world of business, general risks af fect literary every company in business though at varying intensities. Risks have various implications on business depending on the level of their impacts and predisposition of a particular business on them. In some instances, risks may lead to complete loss of business. For example, if a business is exposed to fire and explosives risks, it can be completely wiped out in case of an accident. However, McShane and Anil (2011, p. 641) affirm that some of the risks affect all businesses in their every day affairs, for example supply and demand risk, price risks, and government regulations. Businesses have little or no control on some risks such as natural calamity risks, for instance earthquakes and floods. Nevertheless, it is important for a business to devise ways and methods of detecting, assessing, and mitigating the risks. Oil and Gas Companies Oil and gas companies provide a working illustration of the subject of risks that is under scrutiny based on the various risks they encount er in their everyday business affairs. From the point of extracting oil and gas, processing it into finished products to transportation, warehousing, and retailing, the whole business is a risk. These companies encounter various types of risks in their line of business. Chanmeka et al. (2012, p. 259) assert that risks affect almost every firm in business and are likely to affect the oil and gas industry more than any other firm. According to Helman (2013, p. 62), the oil and gas industry faces tight regulations on how to conduct its business. Such regulations include rules on how oil and gas are extracted from the source, regulations on where they can be extracted and where extraction cannot be done, and regulations of the period in which extraction of oil and gas can be done. The government has the upper hand in such regulations since oil business is lucrative. In fact, the political wrangles that affect most countries that have oil and gas resources revolve around the control of o il wells by the government. Countries such as Sudan and Southern Sudan have been in conflict due to control of oil wells.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Managing Risks in Oil and Gas Companies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such political wrangles have also been witnessed in Kuwait and Nigeria. Whenever there are political wrangles in the control of oil and gas, the companies that invest in such nations face higher economic and political risks. Haselip and Martà ­nez (2011, p. 1) argue that politics of regionalism, equitable distribution of national resources, and resource distribution also affect oil and gas regulation. In some cases, the laws governing extraction, processing, and distribution of oil and gases in different states may vary. Antonsen, Kari, and Jarl (2012, 2001) reveal that it is more risky to carryout oil and gas business in dependence on foreign deposits without standardisation. In the o il and gas industry, some companies that show interest are likely to invest in any part of the world where the oil and gas field has a sheer disregard of the political climate of the country. According to Helman (2013, p. 63), if the host country nationalises the industry, foreign investors are likely to suffer loss. Politics of that kind of nation may also change to favour certain investors or category of investors where the foreign investor may not be considered. Antonsen, Kari, and Jarl (2012, p. 2001) argue that some economies will attract investors to begin the process of extraction. Nevertheless, once the process of extraction is complete and the oil and business industry becomes lucrative, politicians, activists, and government officials enact laws to enable the government to leap more from the industry. An investor who puts his or her resources in such an industry is therefore likely to suffer loss. Political risk in oil industry is a major threat to the stability of the sec tor. It is even more risky to invest in the oil and gas industry in some developing countries. In some of the developing countries with plenty of oil and gas such as Libya and Sudan in Africa, the countries are under poor political leadership thus posing a great risk to investors in the industry. Whenever there is a political turmoil in various nations, oil tankers are targeted due to the high flammability of oil. In addition, Dumaine (2013, p. 102) affirms that oil and gas industries demand tight security and surveillance even in small quantities such as in China. It would therefore mean that, when there is political instability in a county, the rate of insecurity goes down. Consequently, the risk on the industry goes up.Advertising Looking for dissertation on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Wilkinson and Roland (2013, p. 118) assert that the process of gas and oil exploitation has also become very risky especially with the current dynamics. For instance, drilling of oil is happening in very dangerous environments such as oceans. Extraction in such areas increases the risks that oil and gas industries have to incur in the process of extraction, refining, distribution, and marketing. Smistad and Igor (2011, p. 91) affirm that there has also been an increase in the level of unconventional methods of oil and gas extraction. Out of such unconventional methods of mining, some potential oil and gas mines have been poorly exploited or destroyed. In fact, some of these procedures have been used to extract oil and gas in places where it would have proved impracticable. According to Smistad and Igor (2012, p. 46), gas and oil extraction companies involve themselves in great risks by investing a lot of finances and other resources in extraction. Some companies have incurred much c ost in the process of extracting gas and oil only to find minimal deposits than they had estimated. It is therefore risky ventures for a company to be sure that geologists and rock experts have enough evidence of the presence of oil or gas in a certain area. According to Smistad and Igor (2011, p. 91), it is also risky for the extraction company to hire specialists such as geologists in oil in the process of investigating the presence oil or gas in a certain field and then fail to realise the targeted amount of oil or gas. Oil and gas extraction, processing, marketing, and distribution constitute a business that aims at obtaining profits. The prices in the oil and gas markets must therefore be able to sustain the industry in a profitable way. Fluctuation in oil and market prices is a risk factor to the industry. No one can predict what the prices of oil or gas will be when the process of extraction will be completed. Mehemed, Kamal, Kieran, and Kong (2012, p. 201) argue that compani es in this industry therefore undertake a risk in extracting and purifying the gas without clear future market prices for their products. In several instances, oil and gas extraction companies have undergone the whole process of geological tests and drilling despite their ending up without the projected product. In such cases, unless the gas and oil extraction company is insured, it suffers a big loss. The nature of oil and gas market has been fluctuating over the years. According to Chen and Jevons (1993, p. 667), fluctuation of oil and gas prices poses a great risk to the stakeholders in the industry. Supply and demand issue is a limitation to the oil and gas industry. Venturing into oil and gas industry involves investing huge capital. The operations involved in extracting oil and gas are very expensive and extraction companies have to invest in the process. However, such companies may not be aware of the trend that prices of gas and oil will take in the future. Wood (2011, p. 11 3) affirms that demand and supply keep on changing. When the supply of gas in the world market goes high, the prices go down thus increasing the risk of incurring heavy losses. Oil and gas industry also experiences imbalances when prices of oil go up. In most cases, when the prices of oil and gases hike, large warehouses hoard the commodities. Okeefe and Doris (2013, p. 158) argue that hoarding increases the risk of loss of customers on retailers and local wholesalers since the commodity does not reach the target consumer. Such suppliers are also at the risk of being compromised of inconsistency by their customers. Mohanty and Mohan (2011, p. 165) argue that it is also very hard to predict the production rates of gas and oil in various states especially with a nation with many states such as the U.S. Kendrick (2012, p. 61) affirms that unpredictability of productivity increases the risk of price fluctuation in the oil and gas industry. In addition, Andersson, Sudhir, and Zafar (2009 , p. 440) reveal that, whenever there is a financial crisis in a country or a region, for example, the American crisis or the European crisis of 2007, supply and demand of oil and gas also change. Financial crisis increases the risk of reduced purchasing power. Hence, the affected country experiences low demand for oil and gases. Wood (2011, p. 113) point out that the economic crisis increases the risk of low supply and demand due to its ability to reduce the capital base of a nation. When a country has a low capital base, it is limited in its operations. Donaldson and Schoemaker (2013, p. 24) argue that the macroeconomic position of the industry can also increase the risk of demand and supply. Macroeconomic power of every industry dictates the success of business under it. The oil and gas industry experiences huge operational costs. Okeefe and Doris (2013, p. 158) argue that all the other risk factors involved in the oil and gas industry drain into operational costs. Mohanty and Mo han (2011, p. 165) argue that, when the regulations set by political leaders and governments of a particular nation are very tight, the operation cost goes up. Tight regulations make the process of extracting, processing, and distributing gas and oil more extensive and hence expensive. Wilkinson and Roland (2013, p. 118) posit that the operations that are involved in the process of oil mining and gas harvesting determine the level of operations risks that a firm is likely to incur. The operations involved in drilling are also extensive and expensive. Mehemed, Kamal, Kieran, and Kong, (2012, p. 201) establish that the process of drilling is coupled with many limitations, for instance, bad weather, poor soils and other geological factors, inaccessibility, and technological problems. Such problems increase the operations cost. When the operations cost hikes, the industry becomes disfranchised. Different producers set their own market prices to overcome their cost of production. Accordi ng to Donaldson and Schoemaker (2013, p. 24), variation in the cost of production makes it difficult for nations of the world to set standard oil and gas prices. In fact, some industries incur a double or triple cost of production compared to others. It is out of such variations that oil and gas prices have become very competitive in the market. According to Robb (2012, p. 756), industries that have been in the line of production for many years incur lesser risks than new industries. Managing Risks- Risk Identification, Risk Assessment, and Risk Control The oil and gas industry is a risk-prone industry. Various uncertainties go along these risks such as the risk of exploration, demand and supply risk, crude price uncertainty, and product line risk. According to Robb (2012, p. 756), the oil and gas industry is one of the risky ventures. Hence, to prevent the danger that the industry poses, there should be the need to manage it. Sarkar (2012, p. 28) affirms that management of risks al so ensures that the small industries and the upcoming ones become commercially viable. In addition, there are technological risks such as â€Å"cyber threats of Stuxnet virus, which also target lucrative oil and gas industry† (Sudhir, and Zafar 2009, p. 440). These and many other risks in oil and gas industry necessitate the need for risk management. Consequently, various methods of risk management have been put in place to mitigate risks in this industry. Risk Identification Oil and gas companies have invested in information access control and management. Such risk management strategies involve identifying and accessing the right information at all time when it is very necessary. Information management has been a great source of risk in the oil and gas industry. Oil and gas companies have therefore put in place mechanisms to harvest policy information, process it, and use it gainfully. According to Andersson, Sudhir, and Zafar (2009, p. 440), information harvesting, processi ng, and management reduce the risk of operations. When companies access the right information before investment, they are able to reduce compliance risks. The company can use future derivative to organise how it will acquire various goods and services in the future at a certain price. Sarkar (2012, p. 28) affirms that speedy exchange of information across the industry enables investors to make the right information. Classified information and access to the information systems of oil and gas companies has also been highly controlled. Risk Assessment Modern technology aids in the reduction of variation in governance-risk-compliance. Technology is also an efficient tool in the reduction of operational risk. According to Akhibi (2012, p. 6), the use of real time monitoring technology enables the oil and gas companies to improve the availability of the commodity to customers, reduce operational costs, avoid conflicts with the society and the regulatory authorities, and reduce the risk of demand and supply. Dumaine (2013, p. 102), affirms that oil and gas companies are adopting condition-based monitoring in risk management, which involves positioning various sensors to measure and record the prevailing environmental conditions such as vibration and temperatures (Pinheiro 2011, p. 34). Such sensors enable the oil and gas companies to detect equipment failure in real time. In fact, Srivastava and Gupta (2010, p. 407) assert that the devices are sophisticated to ensure that alert devices either sound the alarm or give work orders to the operations department. Wimalasiri et al. (2010, p. 49) affirm that sensors have enabled many oil companies to avoid the risk of losing billions of money in spillage and leakages. Some oil and gas companies have set up strategic teams to manage any eventuality such as equipment failure and fire outbreaks. Schroeder and Jan (2007, p. 0.1) point out that fire departments are also connected to sensors in order to enable quick response to ev entualities and occurrences. Wimalasiri et al. (2010, 49) argue that predictive maintenance enables the industry to realise when there is the need to purchase certain equipments before the actual damage is done. Various modern technology devices are put in place to detect wear-and-tear and obsoleteness of equipments in the oil industry. Qian, Yulin, and Gonzalez (2012, p. 859) observe that, whenever the devices sense that a gas tank or an oil tank is not up to the set standards, the necessary alert message is sent to the maintenance department for replacement. Srivastava and Gupta (2010, p. 407) affirm that the sensor is also able to compare and analyse the level of functionality of every device in the firm and or give the right report on each. Pinheiro (2011, p. 34) observes that such quick reactions enable the firm to avoid health risks. Risks Control Oil and gas companies have to deal with the increased compliance and regulations facing the industry today. For example, according to Molokwu, Barreria, and Boris (2013, p. 2), in South Africa, tight requirements of reporting on all operations and events of minor accidents and incidents have been an expensive venture for the industry. There are also tight regulations on drilling operations. Oil and gas companies have therefore put in place mechanisms to ensure that the checklist for all regulations is complied with as the government of the area dictates (Chan 2011, p. 341). Such compliance includes registration of the company, authorisation for drilling, construction of the industry, reliability in maintenance of structures such as oil wells, and the ability to remain in the market as a competitive industry (Khan 2010, p. 157). According to Haselip and Martà ­nez (2011, p. 1), politics in a certain nation or state can play a role in the oil and gas industry. The major role that political forces play in the oil and gas industry is to regulate prices. Politicians are opinion leaders who largely become policy mak ers. Oil and gas industries have therefore put in place mechanisms to work with government in price regulations and policy control. The gas and oil companies have to deal with various environmental and health risk compliance processes. The oil and gas industry also faces the risk of geological inadequacy. In most of the nations and states, the reserve of oil and gas is already tapped out. The risk has also spread in nations that have been exploiting their reserves since they are also in the process of being fully exploited. According to Andersen and Aamnes (2012, p. 2010), companies have therefore put in place methods of ensuring that they comply with the health regulations in their area of investment. Oil is a pollutant to the environment in a double way especially when not well handled. According to Perunović and Jelena (2012, p. 130), the risk of oil spillage in water, for example, during mining or transportation in the sea has been greatly reduced through modern technology. Sophisticated mining methods have been employed to ensure no oil spillage during mining. In fact, Perunović and Jelena (2012, p. 130) affirm that modern water vessels have also been adopted in transporting oil through the sea. Khan (2010, p. 157) posits that employees’ health and safety have also been a risk issue in the oil and gas industry. Oil and gas prices are another risk that investors in this industry face. Chen and Jevons (1993, p. 667) argue that prices dictate whether a venture into extracting oil or gas is to be feasible or not. When geological limitations are high, the price risk of extracting oil or gas goes high. Oil and gas companies have therefore ensured high safety standards to employees through education and trainings. According to Molokwu, Barreria, and Boris (2013, p. 2), employees are taught how to protect themselves, how to behave while in the extraction site or in the storage and distribution site, and even how to manage eventualities such as fire outbreaks. Chan (2011, p. 341) reveal that oil and gas companies have also ensured that the community living near the mines and storage areas are also informed on management of fire and spillage. According to Hayes and Hopkins (2012, p. 145), oil and gas companies have also made use of resource centres that are set within the industries. Various minds gather in the resource centres to exchange ideas on the problems facing the industry. Schroeder and Jan (2007, p. 0.1) affirm that, unlike in the past when orders came from managers, engineers in today’s industry meet and exchange knowledge on various problems that their firms face. Hayes and Hopkins (2012, p. 145) assert that, with the meeting of engineering experts from various departments, the right solutions are likely to be realised to eliminate various risks facing oil and gas industries for example the geological and price fluctuation risks. The experts will come up with recommendations on the right measures that the ind ustry should take to avoid risks. Such decisions and recommendations majorly include modification, technological adaptations, planning, and maintenance. With the modern advancement in information technology, cyber crime and information system hacking has posed another risk to the oil and gas industry. According to Akhibi (2012, p. 6), in Nigeria, oil and gas companies have therefore put in place cyber security designs and technologies to mitigate the risk. In oil and gas industries, information system security has been highly integrated with people, processes, data, and systems. Such ventures secure the system to ensure accountability on the side of the operators. Qian, Yulin, and Gonzalez (2012, p. 859) argue that information security also ensures continuous surveillance of the internet protocol openings and filtration of information before it gains access to the main information system of the company. Importance of Managing Risks specifically in Oil and Gas Companies Based on the information already presented concerning risks and their repercussions if not mitigated, it becomes clear on the need to manage risks by all organisations, leave alone the oil and gas companies. Such risks reduce the ability of the firm to predict the course of business. The oil and gas industry faces various difficulties and tight monitoring by many authorities. Investing in the oil industry is also a very risky venture. In this light of probability of loss in the oil and gas industries, this paper highlights various importance of risk mitigation. Every derivative that oil and gas industries put in place should aim at risk mitigation. The derivatives that a firm takes should be aimed at cautioning the industry from the past, current, and future risks. Kendrick (2012, p. 61) asserts that risk management in oil and gas industries ensures that there is proper compliance with the regulations of the authorities in their place of business. Insuring the business against various risks also enables the company to have confidence and security in trade. Such regulations should also be adhered to avoid the risk of regulations and compliance. According to Andersen and Aamnes (2012, p. 2010), managing risks in the oil and gas industry enables the companies to have clear visibility of the current position and the future of the firm. Such a goal can be attained by venturing into future derivatives. The industry should sign for future trading ventures at certain prices with certain companies. Conclusion In conclusion, every business venture is exposed to various risks. Consequently, every business has to put in place various mechanisms to identify, monitor, assess, and control risks. Private enterprise is generally a risky venture. However, as discussed, the oil and gas company is bound to face more risks than any other business. The major risks that affect oil and gas companies include geological risks, political risks, government regulations, and compliance risks, price flu ctuation, demand and supply, and natural calamities risk. Oil and gas companies have therefore invested heavily in various risk mitigation measures. Such measures include risk identification, risk assessment, and risk monitoring and control. It is important to manage risks in every business venture. Risks can result in complete loss of business. They can lead to conflicts with the authorities and the communities in the business environment. It is therefore important to comply with the regulatory measures put in place by the regulatory authorities. Insuring the business against various risks is also an important step in risk mitigation. References Akhibi, O 2012, ‘Risk Management An Essential Ingredient in Nigerian Oil and Gas Construction Projects Delivery’, PM World Today, vol. 14 no. 3, p. 6. Andersen, S Aamnes, M 2012, ‘Risk analysis and risk management approaches applied to the petroleum industry and their applicability to IO concepts’, Safety Science , vol. 50 no. 10, pp. 2010-2019. Andersson, R, Sudhir, C, Zafar, K 2009, ‘Effects of Cutbacks in the United States Oil and Gas Industry on Employee Attitudes: An Empirical Study’, International Journal of Management, vol. 26 no.3, pp. 400-411. Antonsen, S, Kari, S, Jarl, R 2012, ‘The role of standardisation in safety management – A case study of a major oil gas company’, Safety Science, vol. 50 no. 10, pp. 2001-2009. Chan, M 2011, ‘Fatigue: the most critical accident risk in the oil and gas construction’, Construction Management Economics, vol. 29 no. 4, pp. 341-353. Chanmeka, A, Thomas, S, Caldas, C, Mulva, S 2012, ‘Assessing key factors impacting the performance and productivity of oil and gas projects in Alberta’, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 39 no. 3, pp. 259-270. Chen, K Jevons, C 1993, ‘Financial Ratios and Corporate Endurance: A Case of the Oil and Gas Industry’, Contemporary Accounti ng Research, vol. 9 no. 2, pp. 667-694. Dumaine, B 2013, ‘Fracking Comes To China’, Fortune, vol. 167 no.6, p. 102. Donaldson, T Schoemaker, P 2013, ‘Self-Inflicted Industry Wounds: Early Warning Signals and Pelican Gambits’, California Management Review, vol. 55 no. 2, pp. 24-45. Haselip, J Martà ­nez, R 2011, ‘Perus Amazonian oil and gas industry: risks, interests and the politics of grievance surrounding the development of block 76, Madre de Dios’, International Development Planning Review, vol. 33 no. 1, pp. 1-26. Hayes, J Hopkins, A 2012, ‘Deepwater Horizon - lessons for the pipeline Industry’, Journal of Pipeline Engineering, vol. 11 no. 3, pp. 145-153. Helman, C 2013, ‘The Worlds Biggest Gusher’, Forbes, vol. 191 no. 3, pp. 62-68. Kendrick, V 2012, ‘Safety Management in the Oil Gas Industry’, EHS Today, vol. 5 no. 8, pp. 61-62. Khan, M 2010, ‘Effects of Human Resource Management Practice s on Organisational Performance An Empirical Study of Oil and Gas Industry in Pakistan’, European Journal of Economics, Finance Administrative Sciences, vol. 1 no. 24, pp. 157-175. McShane, M Anil, N 2011, ‘Rustambekov, Elzotbek (2011). Does Enterprise Risk Management Increase Firm Value?’, Journal of Accounting, Auditing Finance, vol. 26 no. 4, pp. 641-658. Mehemed, E et al. 2012, ‘The Quantity and Quality of Environmental Disclosure in Annual Reports of National Oil and Gas Companies in Middle East and North Africa’, International Journal of Economics Finance, vol. 4 no. 10, pp. 201-217. Molokwu, V, Barreria, J, Boris, U 2013, ‘Entrepreneurial orientation and corporate governance structures at the firm level in the South African oil and gas industry’, South African Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 11 no. 1, pp. 1-15. Mohanty, S Mohan, N 2011, ‘Oil Risk Exposure: The Case of the U.S. Oil and Gas Sector’, Fi nancial Review, vol. 46 no. 1, pp. 165-191. Okeefe, B Doris, B 2013, ‘The Unseen hand That Moves the Worlds Oil’, Fortune, vol. 167 no. 4, p. 158. Perunović, Z Jelena, V 2012, ‘Environmental Regulation and Innovation Dynamics in the Oil Tanker Industry’, California Management Review, vol. 55 no. 1, pp. 130-148. Pinheiro, A 2011, ‘Assessing Risk: A Simplified Methodology for Prejob Planning in Oil Gas Production’, Professional Safety’, vol. 56 no. 9, pp. 34-41. Qian, Ying, Yulin, C, Gonzalez, J 2012, ‘Managing information security risks during new technology adoption’, Computers Security, vol. 31 no. 8, pp. 859-869. Robb, M 2012, ‘Human factors engineering in oil and gas a review of industry guidance’, Work, vol. 41 no. 1, pp. 752-762. Sarkar, A 2012, ‘Impact of Total Cost Management on Financial Performance: An Empirical Study of Selected Public Sector Oil and Gas Companies in India’, Jour nal of Institute of Public Enterprise, vol. 35 no. 3/4, pp. 28-39. Smistad, R Igor, P 2012, ‘Hedging, Hedge Accounting and Speculation: Evidence from Canadian Oil And Gas Companies’, Global Journal of Business Research (GJBR), vol. 6 no.3, pp. 49-62. Smistad, R Igor, P 2011, ‘Hedging, Hedge Accounting and Speculation: Exploratory Study Based On A Sample Of Western Canadian Oil And Gas’, Global Conference on Business Finance Proceedings’, vol. 6 no. 2, pp. 91-104. Schroeder, B Jan, J 2007, ‘Why Traditional Risk Management Fails in the Oil and Gas Sector: Empirical Front-Line Evidence and Effective Solutions’, AACE International Transactions, vol. 1 no. 2, pp. 01.1-01.6. Srivastava, A Gupta, J 2010, ‘New methodologies for security risk assessment of oil and gas industry’, Process Safety Environmental Protection: Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers Part B, vol. 88 no. 6, pp. 407-412. Taylor, M Kathleen, B 2013, ‘Managing Risks In The Volatile Energy Industry’, RMA Journal, vol. 95 no. 6, pp. 80-84. Wilkinson, A Roland, K 2013, ‘Living In the Futures’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 91 no. 5, pp. 118-127. Wimalasiri, V et al. 2010, ‘Social construction of the aetiology of designer error in the UK oil and gas industry: a stakeholder perspective’, Journal of Engineering Design, vol. 21 no. 1, pp. 49-73. Wood, D 2011, ‘Is the oil and gas industry adequately handling exposure to extreme risks?’, World Oil, vol. 232 no. 10, pp. 113-118.

Citizen Cane the Significance of Rosebud

Citizen Cane the Significance of Rosebud Come to Life It is hard to nail down what exactly makes the movies that have been claimed as all-time classics stay in audience’s good graces for so long. No one can tell the precise recipe for a good move – there is no book that tells how to. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Citizen Cane: the Significance of Rosebud specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, whenever a movie is released, the passion that went into the movie-making process collides with the critical vision of the audience. A decent element of the â€Å"old gold† collection of classic films, Citizen Cane is a graphical example of how a well-written character with a unique arch and a decently developed intrigue can make a cinematic masterpiece out of a one poor rich man’s story. A symbol of childhood, innocence and the best kept secret of all time, Rosebud adds that bittersweet melancholic tone to the Citizen Cane and make s it appeal not only to the great of the world, but to any adults who can still remember the time when they were young and careless. Like many other well-written symbols in a movie, Rosebud incorporates several ideas at once, embracing a whole spectrum of emotions and a bunch of memories. Before proceeding with the analysis of the Rosebud significance, one must mention that throughout the entire movie, weirdly enough, it was mistaken for a number of things and people. Some considered that Rosebud was Kane’s memory of his failure: â€Å"A racehorse he bet on once, probably, that didn’t come in – Rosebud!† The reporter, Jerry Thompson, believed that Rosebud was actually a friend of Kane. Thrilling the viewers into paying attention, the movie helps the audience relate to the leading character. Hence the wistful mood comes, making the audience tune into the story of Citizen Kane. It can be suggested that in this meaning, Rosebud represents a symbol of nosta lgia. As it finally turns out, the sled, which the Rosebud eventually turned out to be, appears to be the symbol of Kane’s childhood and everything that being a child involved, that is, having fun and being a kid without a care in the world. Rosebud is the symbol of all the fun that Orson Welles’ character had as a child, and the regret for not having given credit to those days before. Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Rosebud is the symbol of the times when there was no need to care for anything, or fight or anything; it was the time of innocence for Foster Kane. One might argue that the life that Kane led as an adult was much more complex and, therefore, more engaging than the childhood adventures. The movie, however, makes it very clear with the help of Rosebud as a symbol of childhood that it takes ridiculously little to feel on top of the world. In fa ct, at certain point, Welles drops a very clear hint at the act that Rosebud is supposed to signify childlike innocence and contrast with the vulgarity that surrounded Kane in his business career and love affairs: MISS ANDERSON: You have enjoyed a very rare privilege, young man. Did you find what you were looking for? THOMPSON: No. Tell me something, Miss Anderson. You’re not a Rosebud, are you?’ MISS ANDERSON: ‘What?’ THOMPSON: ‘I didn’t think you were’† (Citizen Kane). Contrasting everything that Miss Anderson represents, starting with her no-nonsense attitude to the prim and proper manners, to Rosebud, Welles makes it clear that Rosebud is a reminiscence of the days when playing games was enough to feel happy. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Citizen Cane: the Significance of Rosebud specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is quite peculiar that Kane’s attit ude towards children gets a mentioning several times in the movie; for example, talking about her children, Emily says that Kane â€Å"sees to it that they get cheap ice and only pay a nickel in the street cars† (Citizen Kane). The message that Rosebud conveys might also imply that only in their childhood, people can feel genuinely happy. Speaking of the other things that Rosebud could signify, one can argue that Rosebud is the symbol of good times and the idealization of the â€Å"old days†. Nostalgia is an integral part of people’s life, which Citizen Kane shows in the most obvious way; even the business giant and a cool-blooded, always-reasonable Kane finally confesses that he misses the time when he was a child, though in a rather vague way. On the one hand, in the given context, Rosebud can be considered the symbol of weakness: â€Å"Tough guy, huh? Dies calling for Rosebud!† (Citizen Kane). On the other hand, this is the kind of weakness that makes the audience more sympathetic towards Foster Kane. Everyone has ever had a time in his/her life when a choice between staying innocent and growing up was made, and that choice came at a price. Taking the above-mentioned idea to a different level, one might also consider Rosebud as the sacrifice that Kane made to grow up. However, in the light of the fact that Kane never mentioned Rosebud whenever the movie cut to his life in a flashback, it should be concluded that he never realized what kind of price he had paid for becoming what he finally became. Thus, it can be considered that Rosebud was a kind of a fee for entering the world of adults. Though, as it has been mentioned, Kane never says a word about Rosebud and did not even seem to remember it, the audience still sees the pain that he has to go through when trying to figure out why he heels so empty: â€Å"Mrs. Kane liked poetry† (Citizen Kane). Rosebud seems to be the kind of wistful memory of something that Kane woul d have never felt again – the joy of being just a kid, and being loved by his mother merely for being her son; the joy of knowing that he belonged somewhere and that he was always welcome there. A symbol of time when the lead character could not care less about the problems that most adults face, Rosebud represents the memories about the childhood that every adult has hidden somewhere deep within, as well as the nostalgia for the time when one could be free from the worries of the adults and the existential angst of young adults. Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One of the most well-kept secrets in the history of cinema, Rosebud is a perfect symbol of the sacrifice that people make when they leave the realm of childhood and enter the world of the grown-ups. What used to seem a wonderland full of fun and games turns out to be a piece of junk and a miserable wreck, and that is the cost for growing up. Citizen Kane. Dir. Orson Welles. Perf. Orson Welles, Joseph Cotton and Dorothy Comingore. RKO Radio Pictures, 1941. Film.

Everything You Need to Know to Visit the Temples of Bagan

Everything You Need to Know to Visit the Temples of Bagan SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips For grandeur, size, and the feeling that you’re Indiana Jones, it’s hard to compete with the temples of Bagan in central Myanmar. This massive expanse of thousands of temples (estimates range from 2,000 to over 4,000) dot the landscape in various stages of dilapidation and restoration. Built by a series of kings between 1057 and 1287, Bagan is one of an increasingly rare breed: a world-class attraction that hasn’t yet been discovered by the masses. Bagan’s popularity is increasing, but much of the information about it has not kept pace, and that can make it difficult for travelers trying to plan a trip to this site. Bagan offers a range of unique experiences. While here you can: Watch the sunrise from the top of Shwesandaw Pagoda Cool off with a glass of fresh tamarind juice in a cafe overlooking the Irrawaddy River Discover gold-plated Buddha statues hidden in temple niches Survey the ruins of past kingdoms during a hot air balloon ride over the plains Follow winding dirt roads around bushes and through groves of palm trees to discover tiny temples that only get a few visitors a year This guide will walk you through each step you need to take to plan and carry out a trip to Bagan, from when to visit and how to get there to which temples to visit and what form of transportation to use. 5 Things to Figure Out Before You Leave The logistics of visiting Bagan can be somewhat challenging, so it's important to make sure you thoroughly understand what to expect before heading out. When to Visit One of the first things to decide on when planning your trip to Bagan is figuring out when you’d like to visit. The most popular time to visit Bagan is in the winter, from November through February, when it is both cooler and dry. The average temperature during this period is around 80 degrees Fahrenheit (27 Celsius). This is when temperatures are coolest and there is little rain, but this is also when Bagan is most crowded. If you’d like to avoid the crowds or can’t make it to Bagan in the winter, it’s also possible to visit during other times of the year. The end of the dry season, from March to May, is when temperatures are hottest in Bagan. The average temperature during these months is about 95 degrees Fahrenheit (35 Celsius), although the temperature can often get over 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 Celsius) in the middle of the day. Rainy season begins at the end of May and lasts through October. Temperatures are cooler during this period (about 78 degrees Fahrenheit/ 26 Celsius), but it will rain nearly every day. Take your personal preferences into account when choosing when to visit. Winter has the most enjoyable weather, but you’ll also have to deal with more crowds (although nothing close to those you’ll find at similar locations like Angkor Wat). If you think you can handle the high temperatures, the end of the dry season can be an ideal time to visit Bagan as you'll have many of the smaller temples to yourself. The short period between seasons can also get you the best of both worlds. I visited Bagan at the end of May, right at the beginning of the rainy season, and I was lucky to have no rain, cloudy skies which kept the temperature lower, and few other visitors at the temples, although this won’t always be the case. Whatever month you choose to visit Bagan, know that any time in the near future is a great time to go. Bagan’s popularity has been steadily increasing in the past few years, and, while it’s still a somewhat undiscovered place, that won’t last forever. So visit Bagan now before the rest of the world catches on. How Long to Stay The temples cover a huge area and take a while to get to, therefore I’d recommend spending at least two days, ideally three, in Bagan. Your first day can be spent visiting the major temples (described below), preferably with a guide, on your second day you can explore some of the smaller and more distant temples on your own, and your third day can be spent further exploring the area or returning to some of your favorite temples. Staying longer is always possible, and you could easily spend your entire trip exploring Bagan and still only see a fraction of what it has to offer. However, there isn't much else in the area besides temples, so if you get easily "templed-out", take that into account when planning your itinerary. How to Get to Myanmar Most foreign visitors to Myanmar will require a visa to enter the country. If you’re a citizen of Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, the Philippines, Thailand (only if you’re entering via an international airport), or Vietnam, you don’t need a visa if your visit is less than 14 days. Most people who need a visa are eligible to apply for an eVisa (check the website to see if your country is one of those eligible for the eVisa). To apply for the eVisa, you’ll need your passport information, a recent color photo you can upload, and credit card details to pay the $50 fee. After your eVisa is approved, you’ll receive an eVisa approval letter which is valid for 90 days and which you must have with you when you arrive in Myanmar. If your approval letter is expired, you won’t be allowed to enter the country. Your eVisa allows you a single visit of up to 28 days in Myanmar, and eVisas can only be used by people entering via an international airport. Most people enter Myanmar at the country’s largest city, Yangon, but there are also two additional international airports in Mandalay and Nay Pyi Taw. The eVisa is by far the most popular way to get the visa needed to enter Myanmar, but there is also a paper visa and a visa on arrival. For people in the United States, information on the paper visa, as well as the form you need to fill out and submit, can be found on the Myanmar Embassy’s website. The paper visa will also grant you a single visit of up to 28 days, and you’ll need to attach proof of your plane tickets, hotel reservations, or confirmation from your tour leader. Visas on arrival are rare to get, and they also require additional documents, such as proof of your itinerary. More information about them can be found on the government of Myanmar’s website. Money Matters The kyat is the currency used in Myanmar, and one USD is worth approximately 75 kyats. You can get kyats at an ATM or by exchanging money at a bank or exchange center. If you are exchanging US dollars, make sure the bills are in as pristine condition as possible, as many places won't take them if they have any wrinkles or tears. It's best to get kyats before you arrive in Bagan, as ATMs and official exchange centers are rare outside of the main cities. Some places will accept US dollars in place of kyats, and many of the larger hotels accept major credit cards. How to Get to Bagan After you arrive in Myanmar, there are several ways to get to Bagan. If you’re traveling with a tour, these details will already be worked out for you, but if you’re traveling independently, you’ll have to figure out how to get to Bagan on your own. Flying The fastest way to get to Bagan is to fly. The Bagan airport is called Nyaung U, and there are flights from both Yangon (80 minutes) and Mandalay (30 minutes). (Nyuang U is only a domestic airport, so there are no international flights there.) Flying domestically in Myanmar used to be difficult because there was no way to purchase tickets online. Recently, however, most airlines have adopted e-ticketing. Flights are still limited, so tickets should be purchased at least several weeks, and ideally a few months, in advance. The airlines offering flights to Bagan are Asian Wings Airways, Golden Myanmar Airlines, Mann Yadanarpon Airlines, and Myanmar National Airlines. Roundtrip flights from Yangon start at about $215, and from Mandalay at about $150. Bus The cheapest way to get to Bagan is traveling by bus. Overnight buses from Yangon leave around 6pm-8pm and arrive very early in the morning, usually around 3am. (Hotels are well accustomed to this, and many will let you check in when you arrive, provided your room is vacant.) Bus rides from Mandalay take five to seven hours and travel during the day. There’s variation in the quality of different bus lines, with the higher-end companies, like JJ Express or Bagan Minn Thar Express, offering reclining and quite spacious seats. Most hotels can help you purchase bus tickets, or you can buy them from the ticket office directly. Tickets from Mandalay cost about 10,000 kyats ($9), and tickets from Yangon start at about 15,000 kyats ($13), with higher-end companies costing a bit more. Train Traveling by train is slower than more expensive than going via bus, but if you enjoy train journeys, you may be interested in taking a train to Bagan. From Yangon, trains leave around 4pm and arrive the next morning at about 10am. Trains from Mandalay run during the day and take about 7 hours, although delays of up to several hours are often reported. Trains in Myanmar are often old and have only basic amenities, although most will have a restaurant car available. Train tickets need to be bought at the station. A ticket for a sleeper-car from Yangon will cost about $50, while tickets from Mandalay are about $7-$10. Boat The only way to enter Bagan via boat is if you’re coming from Mandalay. The journey can take between 8 hours and two days, depending on whether you’re on a government-run â€Å"slow boat† or a faster boat that makes fewer stops and doesn’t overnight. Boats stop in either Nyang U or Old Bagan. The ferry service is shut down from April through June due to low water levels. Ticket prices can vary widely depending on which boat you take, but prices are generally between $15 and $40. What to Expect Once You Arrive in Bagan Once you arrive in Bagan you've made it through the hard part, but there are still some decisions to be made. Arriving in Bagan Both the Nyuang U Airport and the train station are located 2-4 miles southeast of town, depending on which part you’re going to. The jetty is about half a mile from Nyuang U market (the boat may also stop in Old Bagan), and buses will drop you off along Nyuang U’s main road, a few miles from town. No matter how or when you arrive, there will be transportation options to get you to your accommodation. However, if you arrive very early on an overnight bus, your options may be limited to tuk-tuks as opposed to taxis. When you arrive in Bagan, you’ll have to pay the Bagan Archaeological Zone fee (25,000 kyats or $20). If you arrive via boat or plane, you’ll pay this fee at the port or airport. If you arrive by bus or train, there are checkpoints where your driver will stop and you’ll pay the fee (these checkpoints are manned around the clock, so even if you arrive at 3am, you’ll still have to pay). After you pay the fee, you’ll be issued a small card you may be asked to show your hotel when you check in. The card is valid for one week, but people working at the temples rarely ask for it, so you likely won’t have to buy another card if you stay longer than a week. Where to Stay While not very populous, Bagan covers a significant area (the Bagan Archaeological Zone on its own is 26 square miles), and there are several different towns you can stay in. Be aware that hotel prices drop significantly during the off-season if you look for deals online. Nyuang U Most people stay in Nyuang U because it is the largest town in the area and offers the most amenities. Nyuang U is also where most of the transportation links are, and, even if you don’t stay here, you’ll likely pass through on your way in or out of Bagan. If you’re traveling on a budget, Nyuang U has the widest selection of hostels and budget hotels in the area, with some rooms as cheap as $20 a night. It also has the greatest selection of restaurants. Nyuang U has a few minor temples within its boundaries, but it's two miles away from the edge of the main temple area. Old Bagan Old Bagan is located next to the Irrawaddy River, just a short walk to the main temple zone (however, a bike or other form of transportation is recommended to reach more distant temples). Because this is the closest you can stay to the temples, accommodation is most expensive here. There are some high-end hotels that cost several hundred dollars a night, but it is possible to find a room for under $100 or even less if you visit in the off-season. There are restaurants here but, in general, Old Bagan is the quietest area to stay in. New Bagan New Bagan strikes a good balance between the other two areas. It’s between Old Bagan and Nyuang U in terms of both price and distance to the temples, so if you’re trying to balance your budget and travel time to the temples, New Bagan might be a good option for you. Which Temples to Visit One of the most unique and memorable aspects of Bagan is wandering through a maze of hundreds of small and forgotten temples with no one else in sight. At least part of your trip should involve just heading out and seeing what you find, but there are also certain temples everyone who visits Bagan should see, and I’ve described each of them below. These temples are generally the biggest, most beautiful, and most religiously significant in all of Bagan. Ananda Temple One of the most important of several thousand temples of Bagan, the Ananda Temple is definitely a must-see. It was built over 900 years ago by King Kyanzittha and today is an important Buddhist pilgrimage spot. Ananda is also one of the best-preserved temples in Bagan, and beyond the entrance are numerous Buddha statues and a courtyard with traditional glazed tiles. This is one of the most popular temples to visit, so there will often be crowds and vendors selling goods during peak times. Dhammayangyi Temple Dhammayangyi draws visitors because it’s the largest temple in Bagan and is visible across most of the temple zone. It’s imposing exterior matches a grim history. Dhammayangyi is said to have been built in the 12th century as an attempt at atonement by King Narathu, who was known for murdering multiple members of his family. It doesn’t seem to have changed his personality much though, for the king also allegedly chopped off an arm of any worker who didn’t meet his strict construction standards for Dhammayangyi. Gory history aside, this is one of the best-preserved temples in Bagan and has many original paintings and mortar decorations. Gawdawpalin Temple Also known as the â€Å"temple of forgiveness†, Gawdawpalin was built in the 12th century by King Narapatisithu. Legend has it that the king committed a terrible crime that caused him to go blind. After completing the temple and praying for forgiveness, his sight was miraculously restored. This isn’t the most unique or interesting temple to see, but it’s an excellent example of how temples were built in the late Bagan period. Shwesandaw Pagoda This white-washed colored pagoda isn’t the most stunning building in the area, but it’s one of the most popular places to watch sunrise and sunset. Climbing to the highest level gives sweeping views of the plains dotted with temples. At dawn and dusk Shwesandaw can be extremely crowded, but it’s quite empty during other times, and the views are still some of the best you’ll get anywhere in Bagan. Shwezigon Pagoda Located in Nyuang U, glittery, golden Shwezigon makes a nice contrast to all of the brick you’ve likely been seeing in Old Bagan. The temple includes four shrines, each housing a bronze Buddha, as well as 37 nat, or pre-Buddhist religious figurines. Thatbyinnyu Pagoda The tallest temple in Bagan, Thatbyinnyu is located near the Ananda Temple. The temple is primarily white, with its spires tipped with gold. Unfortunately, past earthquakes have made the upper stories of the building unstable, so visitors are not allowed to climb it. Touring Bagan With a Guide It’s possible to either wander Bagan on your own or hire a guide for a day or half-day tour. There are several types of guided tours. Horse-Cart A guided horse cart tour is the most traditional and cheapest way to tour Bagan. Your guide will be a local, and you’ll sit in the back of a cart with a cover on top so you’re protected from sun and rain. Your driver will know where all of the main temples are as well as places to stop for snacks and drinks, but their job is mostly transporting you from one place to another as opposed to explaining the sites. Once you hop out of the cart to explore the temples you’ll be on your own. Prices can vary widely depending on the season and competition, but expect to pay around 25,000 kyats ($21) for a full-day tour and slightly less for a half-day tour. There are also sometimes rickshaws available for tours, but they're much less common. Taxi You can also tour Bagan in a taxi. This will be similar to the horse cart tour, but with increased comfort and cost, and you’ll likely get to see more of Bagan because you can travel faster. Most hotels will be able to hire taxis for you, and you can also enquire at Nyaung U airport. Taxi tour prices can vary widely (always confirm the price with the driver before you start), but expect to pay about twice as much as a horse cart tour. Balloon Rides For those looking for a once-in-a-lifetime experience (besides just visiting Bagan itself), it’s possible to take a hot air balloon over the temples. You’ll take off early in the morning so you can see sunrise from the air, then circle around the main temples of Bagan. Balloon tours are only available from October to April and cost about $350-$400 per person. The price typically includes pickup and drop-off, breakfast, and a champagne toast. There are several companies that offer these tours including Balloons Over Bagan, Bagan Balloon, Oriental Ballooning, and Golden Eagle Ballooning. Book your tickets before you arrive as the trips can sell out in advance. Getting Around on Your Own It’s also possible to explore Bagan individually. Walking is, of course, possible, and can be useful for nearby temples, but Bagan’s size and regular high temperatures mean you’ll probably want to have some form of transportation to more comfortably reach distant sites. Almost every hotel rents bikes for as little as $2 a day. Bikes are a cheap and easy way to get around, but if it’s very hot you may wear yourself out pedaling all day. Also, the ground can get very loose and sandy around the smaller temples, which can be difficult to pedal through. When renting a bike, always try it out first before paying for it. Bike quality can vary widely, and you don’t want to get stuck with a wobbly frame or a flat tire. Another option is getting around on an electronic bike or e-bike, which is a bike that runs on electric power or can be pedaled. These are more expensive, but you travel faster and don’t have to pedal very much. If your own hotel isn’t renting e-bikes, they’ll be able to direct you to a place that does. Again, test the e-bike out before you pay for it, and make sure it’s fully charged. Should You Get a Guide? There are several options for guided tours in Bagan, but do you even need one? As I mentioned above, most tours, excluding some higher-end ones, won’t give you much information about the Bagan temples themselves; instead, they’re primarily a way to get around. This may make you think that a tour isn’t very useful. However, Bagan is a huge site with just a few signs pointing the way to the most important temples. Many temples are found on winding, unmarked dirt roads making it almost impossible to easily find all the temples you want to see on your own, even if you have a map. While in Bagan, I met multiple tourists who had decided not to hire a guide to keep costs down, but many left Bagan disappointed because they were unable to find some of the most important and popular temples on their own. I’d highly recommend hiring a guide for your first day in Bagan and asking them to take you to each of the main temples. This way you’ll ensure that you see each of Bagan’s main sights. You can spend the following day/days exploring the other temples on your own and perhaps return to some of your favorites. Tips for Visiting Bagan Finally, there are a few tips you should keep in mind in order to keep your trip to Bagan as smooth and enjoyable as possible. Tip 1: Make Use of the Early Morning Bagan is hot all year round, so take advantage of the morning hours right after dawn when Bagan is cooler and less crowded. During sunrise, there will generally be crowds around popular spots like Shwesandaw Pagoda, but at least one morning you should get off the beaten trail and visit some of the lesser-known temples. You’ll likely have them all to yourself. Tip 2: Dress Appropriately Most of Myanmar is devoutly Buddhist, and the temples of Bagan are some of their most important religious sites. As such, visitors are expected to be respectful and dress appropriately. Everyone, especially women, should make sure their pants/skirt/dress reaches past their knees, and covering your shoulders is a good idea too. Those who don’t meet the dress code will be denied entry into the larger temples (most smaller temples have no one to check what you’re wearing). You must be barefoot when entering the temples, so wear flip-flops or sandals so you're not spending a lot of time messing with socks and shoelaces. Walking barefoot on hot tiles can get uncomfortable in the middle of the day, which is another reason to get up early. Tip 3: Be Respectful Again, the Bagan temples are culturally and religiously significant to the people of Myanmar, so don’t treat them like they’re just an Instagram background. In February 2016, the Myanmar government banned the climbing of all but five of the Bagan temples. The five temples exempt from the ban are Shwesandaw (discussed above), Pyathard Gyi, North Gunni, South Gunni and Thitsaw Wati. This ban was instituted because of â€Å"inappropriate activity† by tourists, including sleeping in the temples, entering restricted areas, dancing in the temples, and causing damage to the stonework. You don’t need to be frozen and silent when you’re in the temples, but don’t be rowdy either and don’t try to access restricted areas (many of these are unstable due to age and earthquake damage, and building collapses are not uncommon). Tip 4: Do Some Exploring My last and most important piece of advice is to do some old-school exploring of Bagan. Bagan is one of the only archaeological wonders of the world where you’re pretty much given free reign around the site. There are literally thousands of temples to explore, but most tour groups will only visit a handful of the biggest and most famous ones. Grab a bike and just pedal in the direction of anything that looks interesting. I spent several days getting lost in mazes of hundreds of smaller temples, and, in addition to the temples, I came across local goat herders and their flocks, Burmese children walking home from school, and a tiny cemetery a villager brought me to. If you’re worried about not knowing how to find your way back to civilization, bring a map with you. You’ll regularly come across Burmese people, and even if they don’t speak English, if you point to town on your map, they’ll be able to send you in the right direction. Recently, I’ve seen more and more people complaining about crowds in Bagan, but on my recent trip I found it easy to escape the masses by stepping onto any of the smaller dirt roads and seeing where it took me.